National Avalanche Center Technical Papers

This part of the Technical Papers section of this website contains a list of papers that have been prepared, at least in part, with the help of the Forest Service National Avalanche Center. We are also trying to post recent avalanche related theses and dissertations (most of which were also associated with the National Avalanche Center). The articles are broken into the following categories:

Peer-reviewed scientific articles

Theses and Dissertations

Conference and other articles

Peer-reviewed scientific articles

2008	Schweizer, J., Kronholm, K., Jamieson, J.B. and Birkeland, K.W. 2008. Review of spatial variability of snowpack properties and its importance for avalanche formation. Cold Regions Science and Technology 51(2-3): 253-272. [Article]
2007	Kronholm, K. and K.W. Birkeland. 2007. Reliability of sampling designs for spatial snow surveys. Computers and Geosciences 33, 1097-1110, doi:10.1016/j.cageo.2006.10.004. [Article] Logan, S., K.W. Birkeland, K. Kronholm, and K. Hansen. 2007 . Temporal changes in the slope-scale spatial variability of the shear strength of buried surface hoar layers. Cold Regions Science and Technology 47(1-2), 148-158, doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2006.08.002. [Article] Lutz, E.R., K.W. Birkeland, K. Kronholm, K. Hansen, and R. Aspinall. 2007. Surface hoar characteristics derived from a snow micropenetrometer using moving window statistical operations. Cold Regions Science and Technology 47(1-2), 118-133, doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2006.08.021. [Article]
2006	Birkeland, K.W., K. Kronholm, S. Logan, and J. Schweizer. 2006. Field measurements of sintering after fracture of snowpack weak layers, Geophysical Research Letters 33, L03501, doi:10.1029/2005GL025104. [Article]
2005	Kronholm, K. and K.W. Birkeland. 2005. Integrating spatial patterns into a snow avalanche cellular automata model, Geophysical Research Letters 32, L19504, doi:10.1029/2005GL024373. [Abstract] [Article]
2004	Birkeland, K., K. Kronholm, M. Schneebeli, and C. Pielemeier. 2004. Changes in the shear strength and micro-penetration hardness of a buried surface hoar layer. Annals of Glaciology 38, 223-228. [Abstract] [Article] Landry, C., K. Birkeland, K. Hansen, J. Borkowski, R. Brown, and R. Aspinall. 2004. Variations in snow strength and stability on uniform slopes. Cold Reg. Sci. Tech. 39, 205-218. [Abstract] [Article]
2003	Kozak, M., K. Elder, K. Birkeland and P. Chapman. Variability of snow later hardness by aspect and prediction using meteorological factors. Cold Reg. Sci. Tech. 37(3), 357-371. [Abstract] [Article] McCollister, C., K. Birkeland, K. Hansen, R. Aspinall, R. Comey. Exploring multi-scale spatial patterns in historical avalanche data, Jackson Hole Mountain Resort, Wyoming. Cold Reg. Sci. Tech. 37(3), 299-313. [Abstract] [Article]
2002	Birkeland, K.W. and C.C. Landry. 2002. Power-laws and snow avalanches. Geophysical Research Letters, 29(11), 10.1029/2001GL014623, 49-1 to 49-3. [Abstract] [Article]
2001	Birkeland, K.W. 2001. Spatial patterns of snow stability throughout a small mountain range. Journal of Glaciology 47(157), 176-186. [Abstract] [Article (3.6 MB)] Birkeland, K.W. and C.J. Mock. 2001. The major snow avalanche cycle of February 1986 in the western United States. Natural Hazards 24(1), 75-95. [Abstract] [Article] Birkeland, K.W., C.J. Mock, and J.J. Shinker. 2001. Avalanche extremes and atmospheric circulation patterns. Annals of Glaciology 32, 135-140. [Abstract] [Article (2.5 MB)] Lundy, C., R. Brown, E. Adams, K. Birkeland, and M. Lehning. 2001. A statistical validation of the SNOWPACK model in a Montana climate. Cold Regions Science and Technology 33(2-3), 237-246. [Abstract] [Article]
2000	Mock, C.J. and K.W. Birkeland. 2000. Snow avalanche climatology of the western United States mountain ranges. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 81(10), 2367-2392. [Abstract]
1999	Birkeland, K.W. and R.F. Johnson. 1999. The stuffblock snow stability test: Comparability with the rutschblock, usefulness in different snow climates, and repeatability between observers. Cold Regions Science and Technology 30, 115-123. [Abstract] [Article]
1998	Birkeland, K.W. 1998. Terminology and predominant processes associated with the formation of weak layers of near-surface crystals in the mountain snowpack. Arctic and Alpine Research 30(2), 193-199. [Abstract] [Article] Birkeland, K.W., R.F. Johnson, and D.S. Schmidt. 1998. Near-surface faceted crystals formed by diurnal recrystallization: A case study of weak layer formation in the mountain snowpack and its contribution to avalanche formation. Arctic and Alpine Research 30(2) 199-204. [Abstract] [Article]
1996	Birkeland, K.W. and C. Mock. 1996. Atmospheric circulation patterns associated with heavy snowfall events, Bridger Bowl, Montana, U.S.A. Mountain Research and Development 16(3), 281-286. [Abstract] [Article]
1995	Birkeland, K.W., K.J. Hansen, and R.L. Brown. 1995. The spatial variability of snow resistance on potential avalanche slopes. J. Glaciology 41(137), 183-190. [Abstract] [Article]

Theses and Dissertations

2008	Cooperstein, M.S. 2008. The effects of slope aspect on the formation of surface hoar and diurnally recrystallized near-surface faceted crystals. M.S. Thesis, Deparment of Earth Sciences, Montana State University. [PDF (18 MB)] Naisbitt, A. 2008. Avalanche frequency and magnitude: Using power-law exponents to investigate snow avalanche size proportions through time and space. M.S. Thesis, Department of Geography, University of Utah. 103 pp. [PDF (10 MB)]
2007	Conger, S.M. 2007. Validation of a capacitance snow density probe in an avalanche forecasting setting. M.S. Thesis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia. 110 pp. [PDF (5.5 MB)] Trautman, S.A. 2007. Wet loose snow avalanching in southwestern Montana. M.S. Thesis, Department of Earth Sciences, Montana State University. 115 pp. [PDF (7.6 MB)]
2006	Simeral, D. 2006. New snow density across an elevational gradient in the Park Range of northwestern Colorado. M.S. Thesis, Department of Geography, Northern Arizona University. 100 pp. [PDF (2.8 MB)]
2005	Logan, S. 2005. Temporal changes in the spatial patterns of weak layer shear strength and stability on uniform slopes. M.S. Thesis, Department of Earth Sciences, Montana State University. 157 pp. [PDF (5.5 MB)]
2004	Adams, L. 2004. A systems approach to human factors and expert decision-making within Canadian avalanche phenomena. M.A. thesis, Royal Roads University, 285 pp. [PDF (1.9 MB)] Hägeli, P.T. 2004. Scale analysis of avalanche activity on persistent snowpack weaknesses with respect to large-scale backcountry avalanche forecasting. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia. 251 pp. [PDF (5.5 MB)] Kronholm, K. 2004. Spatial variability of snow mechanical properties with regard to avalanche formation. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Zurich. 187 pp. [PDF (6 MB)] McCollister, C.M. 2004. Geographic knowledge discovery techniques for exploring historical weather and avalanche data. M.S. Thesis, Department of Earth Sciences, Montana State University. 106 pp. [PDF (2.8 MB)] Morstad, B.W. 2004. Analytical and experimental study of radiation-recrystallized near-surface facets in snow. M.S. Thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Montana State University. 218 pp. [Warning...big file! PDF (20 MB)] Romig, J.M. 2004. March wet avalanche prediction at Bridger Bowl Ski Area, Montana. M.S. Thesis, Department of Earth Sciences, Montana State University. 297 pp. [PDF (2 MB)] Tase, J.E. 2004. Influences on backcountry recreationists' risk of exposure to snow avalanche hazards. M.A. Thesis, Department of Geography, University of Montana. 106 pp. [PDF (400 KB)]
2003	Deems, J.S. 2003. Topographic effects on the spatial and temporal patterns of snow temperature gradients in a mountain snowpack. M.S. Thesis, Department of Earth Sciences, Montana State University. 85 pp. [PDF (2 MB)] Pielmeier, C. 2003. Textural and mechanical variability of mountain snowpacks. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Bern. 127 pp. [PDF (4.8 MB)]
2002	Landry, C.C. 2002. Spatial variations in snow stability on uniform slopes: Implications for extrapolation to surrounding terrain. M.S. Thesis, Department of Earth Sciences, Montana State Universtity. 248 pp. [PDF (900K)] Miller, D.A. 2002. An integrated microstructural study of dry snow metamorphism under generalized thermal conditions. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, Montana State University. 257 pp. [PDF (4.6 MB)]
2000	Lundy, C.C. 2000. Statistical validation of a numerical snow cover model and preliminary experimental results to facilitate model improvement. M.S. Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Montana State University. 106 pp. [PDF (2.2 MB)]
1999	Greene, E.M. 1999. Simulation of alpine snow distribution in the northern Colorado Rocky Mountains using a numerical snow-transport model. M.S. Thesis, Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University. 79 pp. [PDF (3.3 MB)]
1997	Birkeland, K.W. 1997. Spatial and temporal variations in snow stability and snowpack conditions throughout the Bridger Mountains, Montana. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Geography, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. 205 pp. [Warning! This is a big file, so you'll want a fast connection! PDF (14 MB)]

Conference and other articles

2008	Bair, E.H., J. Dozier, and K.W. Birkeland. 2008. Avalanche crown depth distributions. Proceedings of the 2008 International Snow Science Workshop, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. [Extended abstract] Birkeland, K.W., P. Bartelt, and T. Meiners. 2008. Avalanche survival strategies for different parts of a flowing avalanche: Merging theory and practice to increase your odds. The Avalanche Review 26(3), February, 2008. [Article] Birkeland, K.W., T. Meiners, and P. Bartelt. 2008. Avalanche survival strategies for different parts of a flowing avalanche. Proceedings of the 2008 International Snow Science Workshop, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. [Article] Birkeland, K.W. and R. Simenhois. 2008. The extended column test: Test effectiveness, spatial variability, and comparison with the propagation saw test. Proceedings of the 2008 International Snow Science Workshop, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. [Article] Hendrikx, J. and K.W. Birkeland. 2008. Slope scale spatial variability across time and space: Comparison of results from two different snow climates. Proceedings of the 2008 International Snow Science Workshop, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. [Article] Lutz, E., K.W. Birkeland, H.-P. Marshall, and K. Hansen. 2008. Quantifying changes in weak layer microstructure associated with loading events. Proceedings of the 2008 International Snow Science Workshop, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. [Article] Marshall, H.-P., K.W. Birkeland, K. Elder, and T. Meiners. 2008. Helicopter-based microwave radar measurements in alpine terrain. Proceedings of the 2008 International Snow Science Workshop, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. [Article] Mullen, R. and K.W. Birkeland. 2008. Mixed effect and spatial correlation models for analyzing a regional spatial dataset. Proceedings of the 2008 International Snow Science Workshop, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. [Article] Naisbitt, A., R. Forster, K.W. Birkeland, and W.L. Harrison. 2008. Avalanche frequency and magnitude: Using power law exponents to investigate snow avalanche size proportions through time and space. Proceedings of the 2008 International Snow Science Workshop, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. [Article] Peitzsch, E., K.W. Birkeland, and K.J. Hansen. 2008. Water movement and capillary barriers in a stratified and inclined snowpack. Proceedings of the 2008 International Snow Science Workshop, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. [Article] Simenhois, R. and K.W. Birkeland. 2008. The effect of changing slab thickness on fracture propagation. Proceedings of the 2008 International Snow Science Workshop, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. [Article] Simenhois, R. and K.W. Birkeland. 2008. Extended column test results during surface warming: Does surface warming affect fracture propagation potential? Proceedings of the 2008 International Snow Science Workshop, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. [Article]
2007	Simenhois, R. and K.W. Birkeland. 2007. An update on the Extended Column Test: New recording standards and additional data analyses. The Avalanche Review 26(2), December, 2007. [Article]
2006	Birkeland, K.W. and D. Chabot. 2006. Minimizing "false stable" stability test results: Why digging more snowpits is a good idea. Proceedings of the 2006 International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado. [Article] Birkeland, K.W., S. Savage, S. Trautman, K. Kronholm, S. Logan, and J. Schweizer. 2006. Uncertainties in assessing the stability of fractured slopes. Proceedings of the 2006 International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado. [Article - 3.4 MB] Greene, E. T. Wiesinger, K.W. Birkeland, C. Coléou, A. Jones, and G. Statham. Fatal avalanche accidents and forecasted danger levels: Pattern in the United States, Canada, Switzerland, and France. Proceedings of the 2006 International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado. [Article] Lutz, E., K.W. Birkeland, M. Schneebeli, K.J. Hansen, and K. Kronholm. 2006. Associations between shear strength of a buried surface hoar layer and stratigraphic, topographic and vegetation characteristics on a "uniform" slope. Proceedings of the 2006 International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado. [Extended abstract] McCollister, C. and K.W. Birkeland. 2006. Using geographic information systems for avalanche work. The Avalanche Review, Vol. 24, No. 4 [Article (large file!) - 14 MB] Schweizer, J., K. Kronholm, J.B. Jamieson, and K. Birkeland. 2006. Spatial variability - So what? Proceedings of the 2006 International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado. [Article] Simenhois, R. and K.W. Birkeland. 2006. The extended column test: A field test for fracture initiation and propagation. Proceedings of the 2006 International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado. [Article] Trautman, S., E. Lutz, K.W. Birkeland, and S.G. Custer. 2006. Relating wet snow avalanching to surficial shear strength. Proceedings of the 2006 International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado. [Article - 5.5 MB]
2005	Mock, C.J., K.W. Birkeland, J.J. Shinker, and M. Bergen. 2005. Snow avalanche climate and extremes of the western United States mountain ranges. Poster presented at the 2005 Meeting of the American Geophysical Union. [Poster]
2004	Abromeit, D. 2004. United States military for avalanche control program: A short history in time. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Snow Monitoring and Avalanches, Manali, India, in press. [Article - 7.5 MB] Birkeland, K.W. 2004. Comments on using shear quality and fracture character to improve stability test interpretation. The Avalanche Review, Vol. 23, No. 2. [Article] Birkeland, K.W. and K. Kronholm. 2004. A comparison of the spatial patterns of penetration resistance of slabs and weak layers. Proceedings of the 2004 International Snow Science Workshop, Jackson Hole, Wyoming. [Extended abstract] Birkeland, K., K. Kronholm, and S. Logan. 2004. A comparison of the spatal structure of the penetration resistance of snow layers in two different snow climates. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Snow Monitoring and Avalanches, Manali, India, in press. [Article] Chabot, D., M. Kahrl, K. Birkeland, and C. Anker. 2004. Snowpilot: A "new school" tool for collecting, graphing, and databasing snowpit and avalanche occurrence data with a PDA. Proceedings of the 2004 International Snow Science Workshop, Jackson Hole, Wyoming. [Extended abstract] Cooperstein, M., K. Birkeland, and K. Hansen. 2004. The effects of slope aspect on the formation of surface hoar and diurnally recrystallized near-surface faceted crystal: implications for avalanche forecasting. Proceedings of the 2004 International Snow Science Workshop, Jackson Hole, Wyoming. [Article] Greene, E.M., K.W. Birkeland, K. Elder, G. Johnson, C. Landry, I. McCammon, M. Moore, D. Sharaf, C. Sterbenz, B. Tremper, and K. Williams. 2004. Snow, weather, and avalanches: Observational guidelines for avalanche programs in the United States. American Avalanche Association, Pagosa Springs, Colorado. 140 pp. [To view the guidelines, go here] [Article for ISSW Proceedings] Kronholm, K. and K.W. Birkeland. 2004. Relating spatial variability to snow stability using a cellular automaton model initialized with field data. Proceedings of the 2004 International Snow Science Workshop, Jackson Hole, Wyoming. [Article] Lutz, E.R., K.W. Birkeland, K. Kronholm, K. Hansen, and R. Aspinall. 2004. Correlating snow micro-structure with snow shear strength. Proceedings of the 2004 International Snow Science Workshop, Jackson Hole, Wyoming. [Extended abstract] Logan, S., K. Birkeland, K. Kronholm, and K. Hansen. 2004. Temporal changes in the spatial variability of shear strength and stability. Proceedings of the 2004 International Snow Science Workshop, Jackson Hole, Wyoming. [Article] Romig, J., S. Custer, K. Birkeland, and W. Locke. 2004. March wet avalanche prediction at Bridger Bowl Ski Area, Montana. Proceedings of the 2004 International Snow Science Workshop, Jackson Hole, Wyoming. [Article] Trautman, S., S. Custer, and K. Birkeland. 2004. Investigations of melt-induced deformation in an isothermal snowpack. Proceedings of the 2004 International Snow Science Workshop, Jackson Hole, Wyoming. [Abstract] [Poster]
2002	Abromeit, D. and B. Cardozo. 2002. Avalanche accident case study: Persistent buried weak layer in the Central Idaho Mountains. Proceedings of the 2002 International Snow Science Workshop, Penticton, BC, Canada, 194-199. [Article] Birkeland, K.W. and C.C. Landry. 2002. Changes in spatial patterns of snow stability through time. Proceedings of the 2002 International Snow Science Workshop, Penticton, BC, Canada, 482-490. [Article] Birkeland, K.W. and C.C. Landry. 2002. Size/frequency power law relationships for several groups of snow avalanche paths. Proceedings of the 2002 International Snow Science Workshop, Penticton, BC, Canada, 31. [Article] Deems, J., K. Birkeland, and K. Hansen. 2002. Topographic influence on the spatial patterns of snow temperature gradients in a mountain snowpack. Proceedings of the 2002 International Snow Science Workshop, Penticton, BC, Canada, 384-391. [Article] Deems, J., K. Birkeland, and K. Hansen. 2002. Geographic variation in snow temperature gradients in a mountain snowpack. Proceedings of the 2002 Western Snow Conference, Granby, Colorado, May 20-23, 2002, p. 130-137. [Article] Johnson, R.F. and K.W. Birkeland. 2002. Integrating shear quality into stability test results. Proceedings of the 2002 International Snow Science Workshop, Penticton, BC, Canada 508-513. [Article] Kozak, M., K. Elder, K. Birkeland, C. Chapman. 2002. Investigating the relationship between slab hardness and the stuffblock stability test. The Avalanche Review, 21(2), 12-13. Kozak, M., K. Elder, K. Birkeland, and P. Chapman. 2002. Predicting snow layer hardness with meteorological factors. Proceedings of the 2002 International Snow Science Workshop, Penticton, BC, Canada, 329-336. [Article] Landry, C.C. and K.W. Birkeland. Scale invariant relationships for snow avalanches. Poster presented at the 2002 American Geophysical Union Conference, San Francisco, California, December, 2002. [Poster] Landry, C., K. Birkeland, K. Hansen, J. Borkowski, R. Brown, and R. Aspinall. 2002. Snow stability on uniform slopes: Implications for extrapolation. Proceedings of the 2002 International Snow Science Workshop, Penticton, BC, Canada, 532-539. [Article] McCollister, C., K. Birkeland, K. Hansen, R. Aspinall, R. Comey. 2002. A probabilistic technique for exploring multi-scale spatial patterns in historical avalanche data by combining GIS and meteorological nearest neighbors with an example from the Jackson Hole Ski Area, Wyoming. Proceedings of the 2002 International Snow Science Workshop, Penticton, BC, Canada, 109-116. [Article (2 MB)]
2000	Birkeland, K.W. and D. Abromeit. 2000. The "new" Forest Service National Avalanche Center. The Avalanche Review 19(1):1-7. Gassner, M., H.-J. Etter, K. Birkeland, and T. Leonard. 2000. NXD2000: An improved avalanche forecasting program based on the nearest neighbor method. Proceedings of the 2000 International Snow Science Workshop, Big Sky, Montana, 52-59. Kozak, M., K. Elder, and K. Birkeland. 2000. The spatial and temporal variability of slab hardness. Proceedings of the 2000 International Snow Science Workshop, Big Sky, Montana, 115-120. Lundy, C., R. Brown, E. Adams, K. Birkeland, M. Lehning. 2000. A statistical validation of the SNOWPACK model in a Montana climate. Proceedings of the 2000 International Snow Science Workshop, Big Sky, Montana, 259-265. McCollister, C., K. Birkeland, K. Hansen, and R. Aspinall. 2000. Using GIS to visualize historical avalanche data. Proceedings of the 2000 International Snow Science Workshop, Big Sky, Montana, 439.
1999	Mock, C.J. and K.W. Birkeland. 1999. Avalanche climate regions of the western United States: An update. The Avalanche Review 17(3):6-7.
1998	Birkeland, K.W. 1998. Snow stability patterns throughout the Bridger Range, Montana. Proceedings of the 1998 International Snow Science Workshop, Sunriver, Oregon, 362-367. Birkeland, K.W. 1998. Forming faceted crystals. The Beacon: A newletter for Friends of the CAIC, 3(1), 4-5. Birkeland, K.W. 1998. Near-surface faceted crystals: Sometimes today's great skiing can become tomorrow's avalanche nightmare. The Avalanche Review, 17(1), 6-7. [Article] Birkeland, K.W. 1998. The Gallatin National Forest Avalanche Center. The Avalanche Review, 16(4), 1-3. Johnson, R.F. and K.W. Birkeland. Effectively using and interpreting stability tests. Proceedings of the 1998 International Snow Science Workshop, Sunriver, Oregon, 562-565. Stock, J., K. Elder and K. Birkeland. Near-surface faceted crystals and their effect on snow stability, Red Mountain Pass Corridor, Colorado. Proceedings of the 66th Western Snow Conference, Snowbird, Utah, 143-146.
1996	Birkeland, K.W., R.F. Johnson, and D. Herzberg. 1996. The stuffblock snow stability test. U.S. Forest Service Missoula Technology Development Center publication 9623-2836-MTDC. [Report (2 MB)] Birkeland, K.W., R.F. Johnson, and D.S. Schmidt. 1996. Near-surface faceted crystals: Conditions necessary for growth and contribution to avalanche formation, southwest Montana, U.S.A. Proceedings of the 1996 International Snow Science Workshop, Banff, Alberta, 75-79. Birkeland, K.W. 1996. The effect of ski run cutting and artificial snowmaking on snow water equivalent at Big Sky Ski Area, Montana. Proceedings of the 64th Western Snow Conference, Bend, Oregon, 137-148. Birkeland, K.W. 1996. Avalanche hazard analysis for the various alternatives, New World environmental impact statement, Gallatin National Forest, Bozeman, Montana, 25 pp.
1994	Birkeland, K.W. and K. Elder. 1994. Snow science, necessary instruments, and the scientific method. The Avalanche Review, 12(6), 3-7. [Article] Johnson, R.F. and K.W. Birkeland. 1994. The stuffblock: A simple and inexpensive snow stability test. Proceedings of the 1994 International Snow Science Workshop, Snowbird, Utah.
1993	Birkeland, K.W. 1993. Recipe for starting a regional avalanche center. The Avalanche Review, 11(6), 4.
1992	Birkeland, K.W. 1992. Avalanches and extreme snowmobilers. The Avalanche Review, 10(4), 1-3. Birkeland, K.W. 1992. Anatomy of a snowmobile-triggered avalanche fatality. The Avalanche Review, 10(4), 5.
1990	Brown, R.L. and K.W. Birkeland. 1990. A comparison of the digital resistograph with the RAM penetrometer. Proceedings of the 1990 International Snow Science Workshop, Bigfork, Montana, 19-30.
1988	Birkeland, K.W. and T. Leonard. 1988. An inexpensive bomb tram for aerial detonations. The Avalanche Review, 6(4), 8. [Article] (for another article on bomb trams by Bridger Bowl's Ray Dombrowski from the same issue of The Avalanche Review, click here)