...Open Book Self-Test...

1. A climax avalanche is:
   1. caused as a result of a single, heavy storm
   2. involves the full depth of the snow cover to the ground
   3. the result of a sequence of meteorological causes
   4. a freak avalanche that only occurs at intervals of several years
    
2. List the three parts of an avalanche path:
3. Loose snow avalanches can be recognized by:
1. their origin as a single point
2. lack of cohesion of the snow particles
3. the slide gaining in width as it falls
4. all of the above
   
   
4. The term "settlement" refers to:
   1. the displacement of the entire snow cover along the ground surface
   2. lack of cohesion of the snow particles
   3. snow cover that slowly accelerates with widening cracks
   4. compression of the snow perpendicular to the slope under its own weight
      
      

5. How can hard slab avalanches be distinguished from soft slab avalanches?

6. Metamorphism:
   1. is a continuous process
   2. is influenced by temperature
   3. is accomplished through a process of sublimation
   4. all of the above
      
      

7. Which of the following is evidence of slab avalanches:
1. a well-defined fracture line
2. a definite sliding layer
3. large areas move at once
4. angular blocks in the debris
5. all of the above
   
   
8. Identify the following as being associated with equitemperature (ET) (rounding) or Temperature-Gradient (TG) (faceting) metamorphism.
1. _____ stops below -40 F
2. _____ proceeds rapidly at 32 F
3. _____ forms crystals that have edges and faces
4. _____ strongly affected by temperature gradients
5. _____ requires air permeability in
6. _____ forms rounded grains
7. _____ forms weak layers
 
9. True or False
1. Snow absorbs visible light very well
2. Heat is transmitted poorly by snow, i.e., snow is a good insulator
3. The variation in the strength of snow is among the widest in nature
4. Heat stored in the ground can melt substantial quantities of snow
5. Snow melts faster when covered with thin fog or low broken clouds than on a clear day
6. The stratification of layers of snow formed as snow accumulates layer by layer creates distinctive layers of snow crystal types, depths, settlement characteristic, and temperatures that remain unchanged throughout the life of the snowpack.
   
   
10. Loose snow avalanches are caused by:
    1. deposition of snow under windy conditions
    2. increase in snowpack cohesion from metamorphism
    3. snow accumulation on slopes greater than the angle of repose
    4. all of the above
       
       

11. Instability in slab snowpacks may increase because of:
    1. decreased bonding strength between layers
    2. snow loads that increase more rapidly that settlement
    3. decreased strength of all anchorages
    4. all of the above
       
       

12. The reason avalanche danger persists longer at lower temperature is:
    1. cold snow flows rapidly
    2. cold snow becomes stiffer and creep tension more persistent
    3. cold snow redistributes stresses by internal deformation
    4. all of the above
       
       

13. True or False
    1. Homogeneous snowpacks are more likely to slide than those with discontinuities in the layers
    2. Snow surfaces exposed to prolonged weathering offer poor bonding surfaces for subsequent snowfalls
    3. The most common avalanche trigger is fresh snow
       
       

14. Describe the most dangerous avalanche path:

15. What are the slope angles where avalanches are most common?

16. Rough ground surfaces inhibit avalanches:
    1. throughout winter
    2. until TG metamorphism is well established
    3. in spring, when water lubricates the surface
    4. when ground obstructions are covered by snow
       
       

17. Rank the following from most dangerous to safest routes in avalanche terrain (1 = safest, 5 = most dangerous):
    1. midway up the gully
    2. across the crown of a convex slope
    3. on the ridge line behind cornices
    4. through heavy timber
    5. along the valley floor
       
       

18. List two characteristics associated with each class of stability evaluation.

Class I
Class II
Class III
19. List three danger signs that could be observed while traveling in the backcountry.

20. List two traits you would especially check for when digging a snow pit to evaluate stability:

21. At what snowfall rate should avalanches be anticipated, especially if accompanied by wind?

22. At what wind speed does avalanche danger develop?

23. What is the special danger associated with "inverted storms?"

24. Which Class of stability evaluation is most accurate? Which is used at developed ski areas?

25. What causes most avalanches?:

26. The most probable time of occurrence for soft snow avalanches is:
    1. during and after big winter storms
    2. after a day or two of settlement
    3. following prolonged cold periods
    4. in late winter following extensive TG metamorphism
       
       

27. Hard slab avalanches are difficult to predict because:
    1. it is difficult to measure slab strength as a function of load or stress
    2. shovel tests are impractical
    3. ordinary ski testing does not reveal hard slab danger
    4. all of the above
       
       

28. Sunballs are an indication of:
    1. mid-pack TG crystal layers
    2. snow glide
    3. settlement
    4. a potential for wet snow avalanches if they grow into wheels
       
       

29. Which of the following is not a general rule for back country travel?
    1. expose only one person at a time
    2. carry transceivers
    3. do not ski on lee areas
    4. timbered areas are generally safe in the Rocky Mountains
       
       

30. Which of the following is not a rule when you must cross an avalanche path?
    1. wear an avalanche cord
    2. loosen clothing
    3. remove wrist straps
    4. unhitch safety straps and rucksack straps
    5. take terrain protection
    6. cross one member at a time
       
       

31. If you are caught in an avalanche:
    1. try to retain skis and poles
    2. remain silent but wave your arms around about so others can see you
    3. try to swim in order to remain on the surface
    4. keep your arms at your side as the avalanche comes to rest
       
       

32. Arrange the following steps in order of priority for sole survivors of a back country avalanche accident where help is one hour away.
    1. Go for help
    2. Probe slide with ski pole or ski for buried victim
    3. Mark last-seen point
    4. Initiate transceiver search
    5. Perform a quick search of the area below last-seen point
    6. Conduct a thorough search, probing all possible areas
       
       

33. The probability of locating an avalanche victim alive after being buried for 30 minutes is:
    1. 25 percent
    2. 75 percent
    3. 50 percent
    4. 15 percent
       
       

34. The most common cause of death in avalanches is:
    1. fright
    2. shock
    3. suffocation
    4. mechanical injuries
       
       

35. The most important component of an organized avalanche rescue is:
    1. equipment
    2. discipline
    3. proper organization
    4. speed
       
       

36. Which of the following would not ordinarily be a function of the immediate (hasty) party, or first group to be dispatched to an avalanche rescue scene?
    1. bring oxygen to help treat suffocation
    2. search debris for clues and mark last scene point
    3. direct electronic search
    4. initiate probing
       
       

37. Match the following: fine probing coarseprobing
    1. spaced elbow to elbow with one probe between legs
    2. spaced fingertip to fingertip with probes in front of each foot
    3. insures victim will be found
    4. gives best chance of finding victim alive
    5. spaced forward by one step
    6. spaced forward by two boot lengths
    7. probed in front of both feet and center
    8. spaced forward by one boot length